引言

鈦合金(Titanium alloys)憑借其優異的比強度、耐腐蝕性和良好的生物相容性，已成為航空航天、海洋工程及生物醫學等先進工程領域的關鍵結構材料[1-3]。根據合金元素及室溫微觀組織特征，鈦合金通常可分為α型[4-7]、α+β型[8-11]和β型[12-15]三類，其選型需緊密結合具體服役條件與性能要求。圖1鈦合金的主要分類及應用場景[4-15]

盡管傳統制造技術(如鑄造[16]、鍛造[17]、粉末冶金[18]等)在大批量、結構簡單零件生產中具備可靠性與一致性優勢，但仍面臨三大挑戰:(1)能源消耗大、碳排放高，與綠色制造理念相悖;(2)熱導率低且高溫化學活性強,易引發組織缺陷并降低性能;(3)材料利用率低、成本高、加工周期長，難以實現復雜曲面結構的高效成型，加工效率與設計自由度受限，無法滿足高性能構件需求。隨著制造業升級與綠色、可持續發展需求，亟需突破傳統技術瓶頸。近年來，增材制造(AdditiveManufacturing，AM)作為一種革命性成型技術，憑借其低能量損耗、高材料利用率與對復雜幾何結構的高度制造柔性等優勢，在高性能、高精度鈦合金零部件的一體化制造方面展現巨大優勢。

本文系統闡述了以激光、電弧及復合能量場為代表的金屬AM技術在鈦合金構件制備中的應用現狀，深入分析了工藝參數優化對鈦合金微觀組織與性能的調控機制，闡明了熱處理技術在改善鈦合金微觀組織及提升力學性能、腐蝕性能方面的作用機理，并基于當前研究進展對AM鈦合金形性一體化調控技術的未來發展方向進行了展望。

1、鈦合金的增材制造技術

金屬AM技術基于“離散+堆積”原理，通過能量源將金屬原材料逐層熔化、凝固成形，最終實現三維構件的直接制造[19]。根據能量源類型與原料形態的差異，適用于鈦合金的主流AM技術可分為激光定向能量沉積(Laser Directed Energy Deposition，LDED)、激光選區熔化(Selective Laser Melting，SLM)[20]以及電弧熔絲增材制造(Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing，WAAM)[21]。相關研究表明[22-25]，在金屬AM技術中引入外場可有效優化鈦合金構件的成形質量和性能，為該領域的發展提供了重要技術支撐。

1.1激光定向能量沉積技術

LDED技術，亦稱激光近凈成型技術(Laser Engineered Net Shaping,LENS)，其工藝原理為通過噴嘴將金屬粉末送至高能激光作用區域，粉末迅速熔化形成熔池，隨噴嘴與工作臺的同步移動實現逐層沉積，實現大型復雜構件的高效成型。圖2激光、電弧及復合能量場技術原理圖[26,34,38,39,55]

由于LDED光斑尺寸較大，成形件表面粗糙、尺寸偏差大[27,28]及微裂紋、孔洞等缺陷[29,30]。制約了該技術的進一步應用。為此，有必要系統研究不同工藝參數對熔覆層成形行為的影響，以實現鈦合金構件形性一體化調控。當前，研究人員圍繞熔覆層成形機理已開展多項工作[31,32]，黃辰陽等[33]建立了高精度多物理場數值模型，模擬了LDED過程中的激光-粉末-熔池的相互作用與流動凝固行為，并通過TC17合金單道熔覆層實驗驗證模型可靠性，基于該模型，系統預測了不同工藝參數下熔覆層形貌與尺寸變化趨勢，揭示了粉末溫度分布和基板能量分配比例對熔池流場及熔覆尺寸的關鍵影響，為成形精度控制提供了理論依據。然而，成形精度不足、組織各向異性等關鍵問題仍亟待解決。后續可通過多物理場耦合仿真與實驗相結合的方式優化工藝參數，并借助熱處理調控組織形貌以提升構件性能，最終推動大型高性能鈦合金構件的精密化制造。

1.2激光選區熔化技術

SLM技術，亦稱為激光粉末床熔融(Laser Powder Bed Fusion,LPBF)技術，是一種基于粉末床的AM技術。其工藝過程為:首先通過刮刀或鋪粉輥將金屬粉末均勻平鋪在基板上，隨后高能激光束依據三維模型的切片數據對粉末層進行選區掃描，使粉末熔化形成熔池，當前層成形后，基板下降一個層厚，重復進行鋪粉與掃描過程，逐層堆積直至完成整個構建制造[34]。SLM成型過程中熔池的冷卻速率極高(10~10~8K/s)，能有效抑制晶粒生長和合金元素偏析，在熔池內形成細小均勻的顯微組織，從而提高成形件性能[35]。由于鈦合金化學活性高、高溫粘性大，SLM為其加工提供良好的成型環境和技術路徑[36]。此外，SLM成型過程中因極高的冷卻速率與逐層堆積帶來的循環熱歷史，使構件內部產生顯著的溫度梯度，進而引發熱收縮不均，最終導致殘余應力累積，加劇構件變形與開裂風險并降低力學性能穩定性[37]。合適的熱處理工藝可以極大地減小快速凝固成形過程中的殘余應力，改變組織形貌與尺寸等，從而優化組織和力學性能。

1.3電弧熔絲增材制造

WAAM技術以電弧為熱源將絲材熔化，依據規劃路徑逐層堆積成形構件。根據電弧熱源特性，WAAM技術可分為熔化極氣體保護焊(Gas Metal Arc Welding, GMAW)、非熔化極氣體保護焊(Gas Tungsten Arc Welding,GTAW)和等離子弧焊(Plasma Arc Welding,PAW),其基本原理如圖2(c-e)[38]所示。GMAW具備高沉積速率和熱輸入，適用于中大型構件制造，但高熱輸入易導致較大溫度梯度，影響界面結合質量。作為其改進工藝，冷金屬過渡焊(Cold Metal Transfer，CMT)技術(原理如圖2(f)所示[39])通過精準控制焊絲回抽將熔滴送進熔池，降低熱輸入并抑制飛濺，穩定熔池以優化成形質量[40]。CMT-WAAM技術憑借加工成本低、沉積效率高等優勢，已成功應用于TC4 [41, 42]、TC11 [42, 43]、TC17 [44]等中大型金屬結構件的制造。在WAAM沉積過程中，鈦合金經歷快速冷卻時，高溫β相轉變為亞穩相，這類組織易引發裂紋萌生與擴展，最終可能導致構件發生脆性斷裂[45,46]。同時，多層堆積形成的熱積累效應會使導致構件內部產生顯著的殘余應力[47]，進一步加劇結構失效風險。因此，WAAM沉積態鈦合金構件需通過后處理工藝調控微觀組織、優化力學性能并消除殘余應力，以滿足工程應用需求。

1.4復合能量場

為了解決AM技術成型鈦合金過程中產生的微觀缺陷(裂紋、孔洞等)、殘余應力及力學性能各向異性的問題，研究人員提出了外場輔助的方法，通過外加能場與沉積材料的相互作用來調控其微觀組織與力學性能[48]。輔助外場主要包括聲場(Acoustic field,AF)(超聲波振動(Ultrasonic vibration, UV))[49]、形變場(Deformation field, DF)[50](含滾壓(Rolling)[51]、超聲沖擊(Ultrasonic impact treatment, UIT)[52]、激光沖擊(Laser shock peening,LSP)[44]等)及磁場(Magnetic field,MF)[53,54],(圖2(g-i)為各類外場輔助示意圖[55])，其作用原理存在差異:AF利用空化和聲流效應消除缺陷和破碎枝晶;DF通過使沉積層產生塑性變形來促使材料發生再結晶;MF則借助電磁力破碎枝晶來調控組織。外場的引入在不同程度上克服了AM的局限性[56]，具有易于調控微觀組織、減小孔隙率、降低殘余應力和改善力學性能等優勢[57,58]，為從根本上提升鈦合金的致密度及改善微觀組織開辟了新路徑，SLM工藝因需要在密閉腔體中進行，將DF和MF與SLM設備集成難度較大，相關研究相對較少，但可將超聲裝置安裝在基板上，超聲波通過基板間接作用在熔池中，但隨著樣品高度的增加，聲波振動的作用衰減，不適用于尺寸較大的樣品[59]。

上述系統論述了激光、電弧、復合能量場成型技術在鈦合金制備中的應用現狀，不同技術因工藝原理的固有差異，在成形精度、沉積效率及構件尺寸等方面各具優勢，可滿足不同場景下鈦合金構件的制備需求。然而，成型工藝及后續熱處理工藝的選擇對調控鈦合金微觀組織特征和服役性能至關重要。

2、金屬增材制造技術鈦合金的顯微組織及力學性能研究

2.1 LDED成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能研究

2.1.1工藝參數對LDED成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能的影響

在LDED成形鈦合金過程中，激光功率(P)、掃描速度(v)、層間溫度、掃描策略等工藝參數，通過調控熔池的熱歷史與流動行為，直接影響晶粒形態、相組成及缺陷分布，從而決定構件的力學性能[60-62]。夏超 [63]利用具有高P的LDED技術成型TA15合金，發現高P引入的高能量使得沉積態組織為粗 α板條狀，性能呈現出低強度、高塑性特點。而工藝參數的協同作用是實現力學性能強塑性平衡的關鍵，艾佳華 [64]在LDED成型Ti-1300鈦合金過程中，通過調控P、v與送粉速率( P r )等工藝參數，獲得了穩定的熔寬和匹配性良好的強塑性。除了優化工藝參數外，層間強制冷卻可降低層間溫度，減少熱積累并細化晶粒，協同提升鈦合金的強度和塑性，Wang等[65]采用層間和軌間強制冷卻(Inter Layer Cooling-In Track Cooling, ILC-ITC)6s,阻斷β晶粒的連續生長并生成了柱狀β晶粒(圖3(a2)所示)，使TC4合金在垂直(0°)與平行(90°)于構建方向(Building Direction，BD)的極限抗拉強度(Ultimate Tensile Strength，UTS)和延伸率(Elongation，EL)均顯著提升，實現強塑性的協同優化。掃描策略對殘余應力、變形行為、及晶粒形態具有顯著影響[66,67]。Zhang[68]采用數值模擬方法系統比較了12種掃描路徑的影響規律，根據其熱-力耦合仿真結果表明，層間掃描方向90°旋轉有利于降低殘余應力，而45°旋轉策略則能獲得最優的變形控制效果。Wang等[69]在TC4合金成型中采用層內反向掃描結合層間橫縱向交替掃描策略(圖3(b1-b2))，發現平行于基板的試樣因籃狀 α/α團簇結構及更細小晶粒，展現出最高的 UTS和屈服強度(YieldStrength，YS)、垂直于基板的試樣(90°LDED試樣)則因組織差異獲得最大EL(圖3(b3)所示)。

2.1.2熱處理對LDED成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能的影響

LDED成型的鈦合金中的典型的粗大柱狀晶組織會引起力學性能的顯著各向異性，而殘余應力集中將導致邊緣翹曲降低成形件的成形質量和成品率，熱處理工藝可以調控LDED成型的鈦合金組織形貌，合適的熱處理工藝可以使組織性能均勻化 [71, 72]。榮鵬等 [73]研究了三種不同熱處理對LDED成型TC4鈦合金微觀組織及力學性能的影響:經975℃/1 h/AC+600℃/4h/AC處理后獲得了韌性更高的 α p 相寬度更寬，且原 β相晶界附近生成等軸 α p 相，使得試樣具有較強的變形能力和高協調性，各向異性得到了改善。Ding[74]對LDED成型Ti55531鈦合金采用超臨界β退火+時效(SBA-A)、超臨界β循環退火+時效(SBCA-A)等工藝，發現SBA-A與SBCA-A處理后，合金內部分別呈現出Widmanstatten晶界和鋸齒狀晶界(圖4(a1-a2)為合金裂紋擴展示意圖)，有效抑制裂紋擴展，其中SBA-A處理使合金的UTS達1045±12 MPa、EL達12.0%±1.2%，斷裂韌性高達81.7±1.1 MPa m1/2，強塑性匹配性最優(圖4(b1-b2))(詳見表1)。曾宙[75]針對LDED成型TB6鈦合金設計了多重熱處理(固溶+一次時效+兩次時效)。如圖4(b)所示，840℃固溶形成單一β相;一次時效(840℃+760℃)析出初生 α_p 、α GB 相并產生無相析出區(Precipitate-Free Zones，PFZ);二次時效(840℃+760℃+530℃)促使次生α_s相彌散析出(形貌隨溫度升高從細針狀轉短棒狀)，且PFZ被α_s相填充;隨二次時效溫度升高，合金UTS降至973 MPa，EL提高至14.1%，530℃二次時效處理時強塑性平衡方面表現最好最佳。

綜上所述，LDED成型鈦合金的力學性能調控需以“熱歷史-微觀組織-性能關聯機制”為核心:通過優化P、v等參數控制能量輸入，結合層間強制冷卻與掃描策略實現晶粒細化及殘余應力降低。LDED鈦合金的熱處理調控需結合合金類型與原始沉積組織:退火適用于殘余應力釋放與組織均勻化;固溶時效通過析出相各向同性分布抑制力學各向異性，適用于β型合金;多重熱處理則通過精細調控相變與晶界結構，實現強塑性的協同突破。

表1不同熱處理對LDED成型鈦合金組織和力學性能的影響[73-75]

Titanium	Heat treatment	Microstructure	UTS	YS	EL	Ref.
alloy	process		/MPa	/MPa	(%)
TC4	600℃/4 h/AC	coarsening of the α p , continuous aGB	965±9	898±9	13.4±2.7	[73]
	800℃/1 h/AC	coarsening of the ap, continuous aGB, fine as	950±4	869±5	26.8±3.3
	975℃/1h/AC+600℃/4h/AC	equiaxed a phase, lamellar a phase	904±5	822±4	14.2±1.3
Ti55531	SBA-A	Widmanst atten aGB	1045+12	943±10	12.0±1.2	[74]
	SBCA-A	zigzag aGB	969±18	914±13	8.6±0.4
TB6	840℃	β phase	846	783	23.2	[75]
	840℃+760℃	Primary a,p phase, PFZ	896	820	20.6
	840℃+760℃+500℃	fine acicular as phase	1257	1109	4.0
	840℃+760℃+530℃	fine acicular as phase	1180	1034	5.5

2.2 SLM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能研究

2.2.1工藝參數對SLM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能影響

SLM成形質量的核心在于工藝參數匹配與能量輸入控制，不當的參數組合易引發匙孔、未熔合孔洞等微觀缺陷[76-78]。能量密度(Energy Density, E)作為關鍵調控指標可實現成形質量的精準控制[79, 80](E=P/(vht)，P為激光功率，v為掃描速度，h為掃描間距，t為層厚)。P和v的協同優化是控制E的核心，Zhang等[81]研究了P、v對SLM成型Ti-24Nb-4Zr-8Sn鈦合金構件成形質量的影響，通過優化P、v值可實現致密度的提升。Cai等[82]研究了E對SLM成型TA15鈦合金顯微組織演變的影響:低E導致熔化不充分并產生氣孔，高E引發過熔與球化效應，此結論與Liverani等[83]、Wei等[84]和Guan等[85]研究一致。PANWISAWAS等[86]和QIU等[87]研究t對合金表面質量的影響，較低的t利于合金表面的成形質量，當t超過0.04mm時使得表面粗糙度和孔隙率增大，繼續增加t將惡化合金的成形質量。

此外，掃描策略可通過調整激光掃描路徑與方向，改變熱流傳遞路徑與熱量分布狀態，調控晶粒取向與溫度梯度，緩解熱收縮不均帶來的應力集中來降低殘余應力[88,89]。陳德寧[90]對比島式與蛇形掃描發現，島式掃描因島嶼邊緣二次升溫使TC4合金的溫度場分布更均勻，可減小應力集中，但溫度梯度較低導致柱狀晶更粗大;Ali等[67]證實，棋盤格掃描策略與連續層間旋轉角度有助于降低殘余應力;Shi等[91]將直線LINE、棋盤格CHESS、條紋STRIPE掃描與定向角度偏移(0°、45°、90°)組合，發現CHESS&45°策略下，TC4合金試樣熔道連續，無明顯孔洞，β相與α'相分布均勻;縱向截面可見沿成形方向排列的柱狀β晶，試樣表面粗糙度達14μm(如圖5(b1-b2))，致密度達99.85%。

2.2.2熱處理對SLM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能影響

SLM成型鈦合金過程中，激光高能束高頻短時作用于鈦合金，使其在凝固過程中發生晶粒外延生長導致柱狀晶的生成 [92, 93]，最終使成型件呈現力學性能各向異性。受快速冷卻過程的影響，β相來不及轉化為α相從而在柱狀晶內部形成了大量α'相使得鈦合金強度提升，但塑韌性降低 [94]。為了獲得優異力學性能的鈦合金，Carrozza等[95]對 SLM成型的 Ti6246合金進行750℃/2h固溶處理后，α'相分解為片層狀α+β，實現強塑性的良好平衡。Huang等[96]對SLM成型TC4鈦合金進行不同退火處理發現試樣的UTS和硬度均有所下降，而塑性有所提高。雙重退火制度可顯著消除晶界，柱狀晶粒消失后的組織尺寸分布趨于均勻，這有利于提高合金的塑性同時使得力學性能的各向異性顯著降低，其中在850℃/30 min/AC+600℃/2h/AC退火處理下力學性能各向異性改善效果最佳(詳見表2)。

與傳統的熱處理工藝相比，多步熱處理技術(Multi-Step Heat Treatment，MSHT)能有效促進a球化與等軸組織形成，強度塑性匹配效果更顯著。Li等[97]對SLM成型TC4合金施加MSHT(工藝路線如圖6(a1)，球化機制如圖6(a2))，通過逐步升溫保溫與爐冷，先使 α'完全分解為 α+β，再經cylinderization、edge spheroidization等球化機制將片狀 α轉為近等軸α晶粒;該組織可降低力學各向異性與晶界滑動阻力，實現強塑性匹配。Wang等[98]對TA15合金進行低溫-高溫(Low-High Temperature,LHT)多步加熱后(工藝路線如圖6(b1))，形成片晶、等軸晶與短棒狀a組成的三態組織(形成機制如圖6(b2))，片狀a晶粒保證了合金的強度，等軸和短棒狀a晶粒降低晶界滑動阻力、激活多滑移系提升塑性。

表 2不同熱處理對 SLM成型鈦合金組織和力學性能的影響 [95−98]

Titanium	Heat treatment	Microstructure	UTS	YS	EL	Ref.
alloy	process		/MPa	/MPa	(%)
Ti6246	750°C/2h	α ′ → α + β	1146±41	1064±10	16.4±0.5	[95]
TC4	850°C/30min/AC	columnar grain refinement, Widmanstatten	900±20(X-Y)	900±20(X-Y)	11.5(X-Y)	[96]
	900℃/30min/AC	gradual melting of columnar grains, striated a/β phase	850±10(X-Y)		14.2(X-Y)
	950°C/30min/AC	disappearance of columnar grains, Basketweave, a phase coarsening	700±8(X-Y)		13.9(X-Y)
	850°C/30min/AC+600℃/2h/AC	short rod-like a phase, Striated a/β phase	896(X-Y)		13.2(X-Y)
TC4	MSHT	α ′ → α + β, equiaxed	953	900	21.8	[97]
TA15	LHT	αphase, short rod-like a phase	1033±4	967±4	16.6±0.5	[98]

2.3 WAAM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能研究

2.3.1工藝參數對WAAM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能的影響

WAAM成型過程中焊道形貌可直觀反映焊接質量[99]，孫清潔等[100]研究表明，調整電弧電流可有效調節Ti60合金焊道的宏觀成形，增大熔寬和熔深，減少金屬球化并提升焊道均勻性。Liu等[101]針對GTAM-WAAM成型TC4合金，采用Box-Behnken設計響應面實驗構建熔覆層寬、高及熔深的回歸模型，方差分析表明:焊接電流(I)、送絲速度(V)與焊槍移動速度(Vs)為關鍵影響因子。其可行性指標分布如圖7(a1-a2)所示，最優參數對應圖中紅色區域;最優參數下，TC4薄壁件韃課瘓�为网历Q櫓�，a相從頂部到底部逐漸粗化，顯微硬度隨之下降，拉伸性能因a相排列及晶粒取向呈現各向異性。

熱輸入過高會導致沉積層間溫度升高、層高減小、寬度增大，引發尾部塌陷，影響成形質量與力學性能[102,103]。通過層間強制冷卻和合理的路徑規劃能夠使熱輸入均勻分布，減少局部過熱或冷卻過快引發的缺陷，細化晶粒促進等軸晶的生成，提升材料性能。如，Ogino等[104]發現，每道次成型后冷卻并嚴格控制層間溫度，可明顯改善尾部塌陷;He等[105]通過梯度熱輸入結合層間冷卻工藝，通過提高冷卻速率抑制柱狀晶粒外延生長，使Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V(TC11)合金形成細柱狀-等軸混合組織，其顯微硬度、UTS和EL分別提高了5.3%、6.6%和37.6%。Wang等[106]對比分析了三種沉積策略(A:雙向掃描+0s層間停留，B:單向掃描+24s層間停留，C:單向掃描+120s層間停留)對WAAM成型TC4合金的溫度與應力應變場的影響:在策略B下，a片層邊界形成無位錯再結晶a晶粒，位錯向先 β晶界富集，晶粒內部呈低儲能狀態(如圖7(b1));單向掃描路徑使熱場分布均勻并形成水平層帶(圖7(b2));策略C更長的停留時間為已沉積層提供了更充足的散熱時間，使得沉積過程中的熱積累顯著降低，且熱場分布更均勻，α片層寬度變化平緩，最終獲得等軸晶組織，顯著提材料強度和硬度。

2.3.2熱處理對WAAM成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能的影響

WAAM在逐層堆積的過程中使材料經歷多次的熱循環，同時材料在凝固過程中的冷卻速度較大，使得原始柱狀 β相會轉變成不同形態的脆性 α相，造成合金強度和塑性等力學性能的各向異性 [107]。為了改善微觀組織均勻性和材料力學性能的各向異性，研究人員對WAAM成型鈦合金熱處理工藝進行了深入研究。張帥鋒等[108]在 CMT-WAAM成型Ti-6Al-3Nb-2Zr-1Mo(Ti6321)合金過程中發現，經700℃退火后，Ti6321合金UTS下降70 MPa，這是由于熱處理導致位錯密度降低，位錯間的交互作用減弱，從而減少了對位錯滑移的阻礙作用。當退火溫度升高至800℃時，α片層進一步均勻化，其相鄰片層間的亞穩 β相進一步轉變分解，亞穩 β相轉變為短棒狀 α相， α/ β相界面數量增加，從而增強了對滑移的阻礙效果，促使強度升高。Lin等 [109]采用Gleeble熱模擬構建了 WAAM成型 TC4合金不同熱處理態(沉積態:AD;固溶態:AD-ST;固溶+時效態:AD-ST-Age)的微觀結構梯度，AD-ST-Age態α相取向集中性高于AD-ST態(圖8(a1-a2))，最優的熱處理工藝為AD-ST-Age(830 ∘C/2h/WC+ 500 ∘C/4 h/FC，FC:爐冷)，ST使 α ′馬氏體的細化，Age促進 α魏氏體的細化及 α'分解，最終使YS、UTS分別提高12.85%、3.33%。Wang等[110]對WAAM成型TC4合金采用了五種不同的熱處理方案(HT1-HT5)研究其微觀結構演變，與沉積態相比，經過HT1處理后，α/β界面相部分分解，導致了EL的降低;HT2處理后板條 α相粗化，并且在HT2試樣中觀察到了有利于提高塑性的 α/β界面相，導致了UTS的降低和EL的增加。而經HT5處理后，出現細小的不連續 α GB 相、 α p 相和α_s相，α_s相起到較強的彌散強化作用，β相中V元素的界面偏析獲得了較多的α/β相界面(圖8(b1-b2))，且細小不連續的 α GB 相避免了應力集中，使試樣的UTS和EL分別達到886 MPa和 16.6%(詳見表3)。

綜上所述，WAAM熱輸入顯著影響鈦合金成形質量，均勻化熱輸入是改善組織形態、提升力學性能的重要技術路徑。鈦合金的強度源于a相細化、彌散強化及位錯阻礙作用，塑性主要依賴 α/β相界面的變形協調能力。通過退火、固溶+時效等熱處理工藝可進一步調控組織形態，包括a相、亞穩相及a/β相界面數量，實現強塑性的均衡提升。

表3不同熱處理對WAAM成型鈦合金組織和力學性能的影響[108-110]

Titanium alloy	Heat treatment process	Microstructure	UTS /MPa	YS /MPa	EL (%)	Ref.
Ti6321	700℃退火2h	the dislocation density inside the a lamellae decreases	1100	900	15	[108]
	800℃退火2h	homogenization of a lamellae, decomposition of βphase	1100	1000	12
TC4	830°C/2h/WC	metastable a' martensite	925.3	925.3	9	[109]
	830°C/2h/WC+500°C/4h/AC	fine acicular secondary as phase, short rod-like aGB	954.38	871.31	5.37
	830°C/2h/WC+800°C/2h/AC	Short rod-like secondary a phase	904.33	811.72	8
	830°C/2h/WC+500°C/4h/FC	fine acicular secondary as phase, granular aGB	946.46	902.62	5.38
TC4	600℃/4h/AC	partial decomposition of the a/β interfacial phase	854	772	11.8	[110]
	850°C/2h/AC	a phase lath coarsening, secondary as phase	845	734	13.6
	930°C/1h/AC+550°C/4h/AC	a, a, residualβ phase	865	783	9.9

2.4復合能量場成型鈦合金顯微組織及力學性能研究

隨著航空航天、生物醫學等高端領域對構件結構穩定性、性能可靠性及輕量化需求不斷提升，傳統單一調控手段已難以滿足復雜工況要求，外場輔助調控技術(AF、DF、MF等)被引入以優化鈦合金的成形質量并提升其力學性能[111]。

AF輔助通常是利用UV產生的聲能與AM相結合，利用其獨特的聲流與空化效應來控制金屬熔池的凝固過程[59,112,113]。Todaro等[59]將高強度超聲共振場與LDED技術協同(圖9(a1))，通過UV引發的熔池擾動與晶粒破碎，將TC4合金中粗大的柱狀β晶細化為等軸晶，電子背散射衍射(Electron Backscatter Diffraction，EBSD)(圖9(a2))表明，無超聲時，α相、β相均呈現明顯擇優取向;施加超聲使a相、β相的最大均勻分布倍數(Multiples of Uniform Distribution，MUD)減小，織構弱化， β相轉為等軸晶粒且<001>織構消失，各向異性降低，UTS、YS較未處理態提高約12%。

在AM過程中引入DF使沉積層發生塑性變形，在下一層沉積時，塑性變形部分可能發生再結晶，從而改變材料微觀組織與力學性能。Yang等[114]采用UIT輔助WAAM工藝，在Ti-6Al-4V沉積后實施兩次UIT，使粗大柱狀β晶轉變為等軸晶與短柱狀晶交替分布的組織，提升表層均勻性(圖9(b1)UIT輔助WAAM工藝晶粒生長示意圖)。Chen等[115]采用UIT輔助LDED制備TA15鈦合金，晶粒細化使UTS和EL均提高。此外，DF還能將沉積表面一定深度范圍內殘余拉應力被轉變為對材料力學性能有益的壓應力[116]，孟憲凱團隊[117]研究發現，LSP在TC6合金表層引入殘余壓應力，抑制疲勞裂紋的萌生與擴展，延長疲勞壽命;其開發的雙脈沖LSP技術，通過延長沖擊作用時間，誘導Ti6Al4V合金形成“細晶-粗晶-細晶”的復合結構，顯著提升顯微硬度與強度，且保持良好的塑性。

MF定向調控中，縱向與橫向MF作用機制存在差異。縱向MF通過洛倫茲力驅動熔池環向流動，可增加焊道寬高比、降低表面粗糙度，并抑制邊緣焊道流淌與塌陷[118,119];橫向MF則通過偏轉電弧誘導熔池單向對流，降低熔池底部等軸晶區域的占比與胞狀枝晶間距，提升枝晶前沿成分過冷度[120]。Zhao等[121]將磁場與LDED相結合(如圖9(c1)所示)，研究發現，在0.55T橫向靜磁場(Static Magnetic Field,SMF)下制備TC4鈦合金的性能最優，SMF通過調控熔池流動與固態相變，增強a相晶界連續性(圖9(c5))、分散取向;弱化β晶粒織構(圖9(c3，c6))，增加α相形核數量并形成規則位錯陣列與亞晶界(圖9(c7))，有效降低力學性能各向異性;該團隊[122]進一步提出高磁場(High Magnetic Field, HMF, 3T)與熱處理相結合調控SLM成型TC4合金的組織，發現HMF可加速a相的粗化和球化，雖使UTS與YS相較原始態略有降低，但EL提高至14.1%-15.4%，實現更優的強塑性匹配。

綜上所述，外場輔助技術通過調控AM鈦合金微觀組織特征，如改善織構強度、誘導柱狀晶向等軸晶轉變、引入殘余壓應力等方面，實現強度與塑性的同步提升，然而，當前關于外場輔助與熱處理工藝耦合的系統性研究較為匱乏，其作用機制與工藝適配性的深入探索具有重要的理論與工程價值。

2.5有限元仿真模擬鈦合金增材制造過程

有限元分析(Finite Element Analysis，FEA)通過構建多物理場耦合模型，可精準模擬從熔池演變到逐層堆積的全過程，量化工藝參數對應力、變形及微觀組織的影響，已成為預測并優化金屬AM質量的主流數值方法。該方法彌補了實驗手段在瞬態場監測方面的局限，支持參數化仿真與快速工藝評估，為LDED、SLM、WAAM等工藝的成型控制提供了重要理論依據。

在LDED工藝中，循環熱載荷導致工件劇烈的溫度波動，冷卻后形成殘余拉應力。Deng等[123]建立了三維瞬態熱分析有限元模型，模擬Ti60鈦合金在LDED成型過程中的熔池演化(如圖10(a1))，通過G和V的關聯(圖10(a2))揭示了晶粒生長模式對組織形態的影響，指出柱狀晶向等軸晶轉變(Columnar to Equiaxed Transition，CET))有助于緩解熱收縮不均，降低殘余應力，如圖10(a3)所示，熔池內溫度梯度方向的變化促使等軸晶多向生長，進而弱化織構。Wu等[124]針對LDED成型Ti6Al4V合金，構建熱-力耦合有限元模型，提出可變激光功率沉積策略StrategyC(四種策略詳見圖10(b))，動態模擬溫度與應力場演變。結果表明:該策略使試樣平均基底溫度降低12.68%-15.08%，最大主應力下降7.8%-32.14%;圖10(c)為四種沉積策略下沿沉積方向的殘余應力(σx)分布情況，其中StrategyC通過降低溫度梯度，使殘余應力分布更均勻，模擬與實驗的溫度及應力誤差分別控制在10.12%和6.92%以內。

在SLM加工過程中，金屬粉末受到高能能量束瞬時輻照，熔化形成微尺度熔池，隨著能量熱源移動，熔池在先前沉積的基底冷卻作用下迅速凝固，使熔池內部表現出高溫度梯度(G)(>10^2 K/mm)、高冷卻速率(V)(約10^7 K/s)和高殘余熱應力累積的非平衡短時冶金特征[125]。這種極端加工條件和復雜流體動力學行為的耦合作用，極易產生氣孔、匙孔孔隙、熔合不良、球化效應等缺陷[126]。為深入揭示工藝對缺陷形成的影響機制并實現精準調控，介觀尺度數值模擬已成為重要研究手段，圖11(a1)為SLM制造中多尺度、多物理場現象的示意圖[127]。鐘敏奎[128]通過多物理場模擬與實驗相結合的方法，系統分析了P、v對SLM成型TC4鈦合金熔池尺寸的影響(如圖11(a2)所示):隨著P增加，熔池寬度與深度均相應擴大;隨著v的減小，熱積累效應增強，熔池尺寸顯著增大，證實了P、v的協同調控是優化熔池形貌、抑制缺陷的關鍵途徑。Yin等[129]對SLM成型TC4合金的溫度場進行有限元仿真，發現提高v和優化沉積高度可有效減少因晶粒取向差異導致的不均勻收縮，從而降低殘余應力與變形。在掃描策略與輔助工藝優化方面，Cheng等[130]研究表明，SLM成型過程中X、Y方向的應力集中主要分布于沉積層邊緣及基體界面區域，其中環形掃描模式下應力值最大，而45°斜線掃描可通過均勻化溫度場分布，顯著降低兩個方向的殘余應力。此外Zhou等[131]利用激光重熔(Laser Remelting,LR)多場耦合模型研究了LR對致密度、氣孔等的調控，受成形過程預熱的影響，LR形成的熔池尺寸更大，有助于促進熔體流動與孔隙填充，從而實現致密度提升與缺陷消除。

WAAM的沉積過程往往伴隨著較大的熱輸入和局部熱積累，導致殘余應力分布不均勻和變形，還會導致粗晶組織 [132]。Li等 [133]結合多組分相場(Phase Field，PF)模型與FEA，預測WAAM成型Ti-Al-Fe-V合金的CET行為，PF模擬表明低G和高V利于等軸晶形成(圖11(b1-b4);FEA進一步獲取了瞬態G、V分布與溫度場(圖11(b5-b6))，揭示熱輸入密度對CET位置的關鍵影響:高能量輸入促使CET提前發生。劉國昌等[134]采用Simufact Welding軟件仿真激光電弧復合AM的熱力場，并通過試驗驗證模型的可靠性，發現溫度積累效應顯著，等效應力逐步轉化為殘余應力，且應力集中于道間、層間結合區及基板連接處;基于仿真優化，通過不同堆積路徑下應力分布圖(圖11(c1-c2))得出道間堆積采用同向式(左至右)、層間堆積采用交錯式的最優路徑方案，有效改善了應力分布與成形質量。

綜上，FEA作為金屬AM質量預測與工藝優化的核心數值方法，通過構建多物理場耦合模型，可精準模擬LDED、SLM、WAAM等典型工藝的熔池演變、逐層堆積及瞬態場演化全過程，有效彌補了實驗手段在瞬態監測中的局限，為量化工藝參數對殘余應力、變形及微觀組織的影響提供了重要理論支撐。

3、增材制造鈦合金的耐腐蝕性能研究

3.1激光增材制造鈦合金的耐腐蝕性

激光成型鈦合金的耐腐蝕性能與其顯微組織特征密切相關。較低的v有利于形成細小的 α ′馬氏體，從而提高表面鈍化膜的致密性與均勻性，顯著增強合金的耐腐蝕性能 [135]。Lu等[136]研究表明，在高P(250W)與中等v(1200mm/s)下成型的TC4合金具有優良的綜合性能:其內部為規則生長的柱狀β晶與分散分布的針狀 α ′馬氏體，不僅力學性能優異，且表面可快速形成以TiO2為主的致密鈍化膜，這是其耐腐蝕性能突出的關鍵因素。由于顯微組織的差異，SLM成型鈦合金的耐蝕性能是各向異性的。Dai等[137]通過電化學測試與組織分析比較了TC4合金XY與XZ平面的耐蝕行為。經Tafel擬合結果(如圖12(a-b)所示)，在3.5 wt% NaCl溶液中，兩平面的鈍化電流密度相近;而在1MHCl溶液中，XZ平面的鈍化電流密度高于XY平面，說明XY平面的耐蝕性更優。其原因在于XZ平面α相含量較高、 β相較少( β相是一種良好的腐蝕抑制劑)，導致其耐蝕性較差(如圖12(c-d)所示)。退火與熱等靜壓(HotIsostatic Pressing，HIP)等熱處理也對耐腐蝕性能具有重要影響[92,138]。退火處理可使 α/β相分布更均勻，降低材料各向異性;HIP處理則能有效閉合SLM成型過程中形成的缺陷，顯著提高TC4合金在腐蝕介質中的耐腐蝕性能。Li等[139]針對 SLM成型Ti-6Al-4V-3Cu合金，研究了不同溫度(760°C、820°C、875C)保溫2h后水冷的組織演變及其對耐腐蝕性能的影響。結果表明:760℃熱處理為最優工藝，可實現 α ′馬氏體部分分解( α ′ → α + β)與殘余應力釋放，同時避免晶粒粗化與Ti 2Cu相非均勻析出，所得致密穩定的鈍化膜(以TiO2為主)，耐腐蝕性能最佳。Anantharam等[140]發現，經800℃/2h退火處理的LDED成型Ti-6Al-4V合金腐蝕電流密度顯著降低，耐腐蝕性最優。其原因為退火促使α'相轉變為a+β相雙向組織，減少a/β界面面積，提升電化學穩定性;未處理的沉積樣品由于缺乏β相，表現出更高的腐蝕傾向。

3.2電弧增材制造鈦合金的耐腐蝕性

WAAM成型的鈦合金，其微觀結構常呈現晶粒取向與 α/ α ′相形態的各向異性，導致耐腐蝕性能普遍低于傳統鍛件。研究表明，鈦合金的腐蝕行為強烈依賴于其微觀結構和服役環境 [141]。熱處理是調控組織并影響耐蝕性能的關鍵手段，但其效果因合金成分與工藝條件而異。例如，在3.5wt%NaCl溶液和5MHCl溶液中，Ti-6Al-3Nb-2Zr-1Mo合金的耐腐蝕性會隨退火溫度從850℃升至1000℃而提升，主要歸因于β相體積分數增加與α相片層厚度減小[142];而Ti-4Al-5Mo-3V-5Cr-Fe合金經750℃、870℃固溶處理并在500℃時效6h后，呈現層狀與雙峰結構，其在2MHCl溶液中的耐腐蝕性能卻有所下降[143]，說明熱處理對耐蝕性的影響具有合金特異性。鈦合金的腐蝕行為還取決于鈍化膜的形成，該鈍化膜主要由TiO2構成，可自發覆蓋于合金表面，且鈍化膜穩定性越高，合金的耐腐蝕性越優異 [144]。Cheng等 [145]對比了鍛造與WAAM成型TC4合金在模擬質子交換膜水電解(Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis, PEMWE)陽極環境中的電化學行為，發現經1050 ∘C熱處理后，WAAM TC4合金中V2p3/2譜僅呈現釩氧化物信號(圖13(i,l))，而鍛造與沉積態樣品中則檢測到金屬V(圖13(c,f))。該合金腐蝕電流密度最低(54μA/cm2)，鈍化電流密度為19.5 μA/cm²，氧化鈦(Ti 2O3與TiO2)占比達80.9%，表明高比例鈦氧化物有助于形成更穩定的鈍化膜，顯著提升耐腐蝕性能。除了熱處理外，WAAM過程中的保護氣體成分也對組織均勻性與鈍化膜穩定性有重要影響。Chen等[146]指出，在CMT-WAAM成型Ti-6Al-4V的過程中，隨著保護氣體中He的比例增加，電弧電壓升高，電弧穩定性增強;當He含量為50%時，部分a'馬氏體分解為a+β籃狀組織，促進兩相平衡分布，這種組織均勻化有助于形成更致密的鈍化膜，從而改善耐腐蝕性能。

3.3復合能量場成型鈦合金的耐腐蝕性

復合能量場成型技術通過多場協同作用優化鈦合金的微觀結構與表面狀態，為提升耐腐蝕性提供了新途徑。LSP具有更高能量、高應變率的特點，不僅能改善材料的拉伸與疲勞性能[147,148]，還可通過組織調控增強耐腐蝕性[149,150]。Jiang等[151]提出電脈沖聯合激光沖擊強化(Electro-pulsing Combined with Laser Shock Peening,EP-LSP)復合工藝,促使Ti-6Al-4V合金表面晶粒細化、 α相向 β相轉化，為鈍化膜提供更多形核位點，加速形成均勻致密的鈍化膜(圖14(a1-a2)為原始態和1次EP-LSP樣品的腐蝕示意圖)。經1次EP-LSP處理后，試樣的腐蝕電流密度降低，腐蝕電位提高，耐腐蝕性能提升(圖14(a3)為對應的Tafel極化曲線)。除LSP技術外，磁弧振蕩也被用于優化WAAM成型鈦合金的耐腐蝕性能。Wu等[152]在TC4沉積過程中引入弧旋轉(ArcRotation，AR)與弧縱向(Arc Longitudinal，AL)兩種磁弧振蕩模式(圖14(b1-b2)所示)，相較于電弧穩定(Arc Stability,AS)狀態，磁弧振蕩可細化a片層，提高位錯密度并強化晶粒取向集中。AL試樣表面形成約22nm鈍化膜與3nm過鈍化膜，結構緊密無缺陷，能有效阻斷腐蝕介質。電化學阻抗譜(Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy，EIS)(圖14b3)顯示， AR與AL試樣的電荷轉移電阻(Rct)遠高于AS試樣，Nyquist圖中阻抗弧半徑更大，表明磁弧振蕩顯著提升了表面膜層的防護性能。此外，Ji等 [153]提出的耦合電脈沖和超聲處理(Coupled Electric Pulse and Ultrasonic Treatment,CEPUT)可以同步去除TC4鈦合金表面的疏松氧化層并生成致密α相層(圖14(c1)為CEPUT作用合金微觀組織變化)。經400A峰值電流處理后，合金在0.9%NaCl溶液中的自腐蝕電流密度降低(如圖14(c2)所示)，較未處理樣品降低兩個數量級，耐腐蝕性大幅提升。

綜上所述，致密的微觀組織與穩定的表面鈍化膜是提升AM鈦合金耐蝕性能的兩大核心要素。通過精準的工藝參數調控與適配的熱處理，可進一步增強鈍化膜的完整性與穩定性;而采用多場協同調控技術細化晶粒并優化表面致密度，能夠有效降低腐蝕電流密度，最終實現耐蝕性能的顯著提升。

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（注，原文標題：鈦合金增材制造技術及組織性能研究進展）

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tag標簽:鈦合金,增材制造,多元化發展,精準調控,單一能量場,復合能量場

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